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Power line communication (PLC), also called power line carrier, mains communication, power line telecom (PLT), or power line networking (PLN), are terms describing several different systems for using electric power lines to carry information over the powerline.
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Electrical power is transmitted over high voltage transmission lines, medium voltage distribution, and inside buildings at lower voltages. Powerline communications can be applied at each stage. Most PLC technologies limit themselves to one particular set of wires (for example, premises wiring), but some systems can cross between two levels (for example, both the distribution network and premises wiring).
All power line communications systems operate by impressing a modulated carrier signal on the wiring system. Different types of powerline communications use different frequency bands, depending on the signal transmission characteristics of the power wiring used. Since the power wiring system was originally intended for transmission of AC power, the power wire circuits have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies. The propagation problem is a limiting factor for each type of power line communications.
Data rates over a power line communication system vary widely. Low-frequency (about 100-200 kHz) carriers impressed on high-voltage transmission lines may carry one or two analog voice circuits, or telemetry and control circuits with an equivalent data rate of a few hundred bits per second; however, these circuits may be many miles (kilometres) long. Higher data rates generally imply shorter ranges; a local area network operating at millions of bits per second may only cover one floor of an office building, but eliminates installation of dedicated network cabling.
High frequency communication may (re)use large portions of the radio spectrum for communication, or may use select (narrow) band(s), depending on the technology.
Power line communications can also be used to interconnect home computers, peripherals or other networked consumer peripherals, although at present there is no universal standard for this type of application. Standards for power line home networking have been developed by a number of different companies within the framework of the HomePlug Powerline Alliance and the Universal Powerline Association.
Broadband over power lines (BPL), also known as power-line Internet or Powerband, is the use of PLC technology to provide broadband Internet access through ordinary power lines. A computer (or any other device) would need only to plug a BPL "modem" into any outlet in an equipped building to have high-speed Internet access.
BPL seems, at first glance, to offer benefits relative to regular cable or DSL connections: the extensive infrastructure already available would appear to allow people in remote locations to have access to the Internet with relatively little equipment investment by the utility. Also, such ubiquitous availability would make it much easier for other electronics, such as televisions or sound systems, to hook up.
However, variations in the physical characteristics of the electricity network and the current lack of IEEE standards mean that provisioning of the service is far from being a standardized, repeatable process, and the amount of bandwidth a BPL system can provide compared to cable and wireless is in question. Some industry observers believe the prospect of BPL will motivate DSL and cable operators to more quickly serve rural communities.
PLC modems transmit in medium and high frequency (1.6 to 80 MHz electric carrier). The asymmetric speed in the modem is generally from 256 kbit/s to 2.7 Mbit/s. In the repeater situated in the meter room the speed is up to 45 Mbit/s and can be connected to 256 PLC modems. In the medium voltage stations, the speed from the head ends to the Internet is up to 135 Mbit/s. To connect to the Internet, utilities can use optical fiber backbone or wireless link.
The system has a number of complex issues, the primary one being that power lines are inherently a very noisy environment. Every time a device turns on or off, it introduces a pop or click into the line. Energy-saving devices often introduce noisy harmonics into the line. The system must be designed to deal with these natural signaling disruptions and work around them.
Broadband over powerlines has developed faster in Europe than in the United States due to a historical difference in power system design philosophies. Power distribution uses step-down transformers to reduce the voltage for use by customers. Since BPL signals cannot readily pass through transformers — their high inductance makes them act as low-pass filters, blocking high-frequency signals — repeaters must be attached to the transformers. In the U.S., it is common for a small transformer hung from a utility pole to service a single house or a small number of houses. In Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service 10 or 100 houses. For delivering power to customers, this difference in design makes little difference with power distribution, but it means delivering BPL over the power grid of a typical U.S. city will require an order of magnitude more repeaters than would be required in a comparable European city. However, since bandwidth to the transformer is limited, this can increase the speed at which each household can connect, due to fewer people sharing the same line. One possible alternative is to use BPL as the backhaul for wireless communications, by for instance hanging Wi-Fi access points or cellphone base stations on utility poles, thus allowing end-users within a certain range to connect with equipment they already have. In the near future, BPL might also be used as a backhaul for WiMAX networks.
The second major issue is signal strength and operating frequency. The system is expected to use frequencies in the 10 to 30 MHz range, which has been used for many decades by amateur radio operators, as well as international shortwave broadcasters and a variety of communications systems (military, aeronautical, etc.). Power lines are unshielded and will act as antennas for the signals they carry, and have the potential to interfere with shortwave radio communications.
Modern BPL systems use OFDM modulation which allows the mitigation of interference with radio services by removing specific frequencies used. A 2001 joint study by the ARRL and HomePlug powerline alliance showed that modems using this technique "in general that with moderate separation of the antenna from the structure containing the HomePlug signal that interference was barely perceptible" and interference only happened when the "antenna was physically close to the power lines".
Much higher speed transmissions using microwave frequencies transmitted via a surface wave propagation mechanism called E-Line have been demonstrated using only a single power line conductor. These systems have shown the potential for symmetric and full duplex communication well in excess of 1 Gbit/s in each direction. Multiple WiFi channels with simultaneous analog television in the 2.4 and 5.3 GHz unlicensed bands have been demonstrated operating over a single medium voltage line. Furthermore, because it can operate anywhere in the 100 MHz - 10 GHz region, this technology can completely avoid the interference issues associated with use of shared spectrum while offering flexibility for modulation and protocols of a microwave system.
Power line communications technology can use the household electrical power wiring as a transmission medium. INSTEON and X10 are the two most popular[unreliable source?], defacto standards utilizing power line communications for home control. This is a technique used in home automation for remote control of lighting and appliances without installation of additional control wiring.
Typically home-control power line communication devices operate by modulating in a carrier wave of between 20 and 200 kHz into the household wiring at the transmitter. The carrier is modulated by digital signals. Each receiver in the system has an address and can be individually commanded by the signals transmitted over the household wiring and decoded at the receiver. These devices may either be plugged into regular power outlets or else permanently wired in place. Since the carrier signal may propagate to nearby homes (or apartments) on the same distribution system, these control schemes have a "house address" that designates the owner.
Since 1999, a new power-line communication technology "UPB" has been developed utilizing a Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) method. The physical layer method is a very different scheme than the modulated/demodulated RF techniques used by X-10. The promoters claim advantages in cost in cost per node, and reliability.
Narrowband power line communications started soon after the beginning of wide-spread electrical power supply. Around the year 1922 the first carrier frequency systems began to operate over high-tension lines in the frequency range 15 to 500 kHz for telemetry purposes, and this continues to the present time K Dostert, 1997, Telecommunications over the Power Distribution Grid- Possibilities and Limitations Proc 1997 Internat. Symp. on Power Line Comms and its Applications pp1-9. Consumer products such as baby alarms have been available at least since 1940 R Broadridge `Power line modems and networks\' 4’th International Conference on Metering Applications and Tariffs for Electricity Supply IEE conf. Publ 300 1984 pp 294-296 (London UK: IEE).
In the 1930s, ripple carrier signalling was introduced on the medium (10-20 kV) and low voltage (240/415V) distribution systems. For many years the search has been going on for a cost effective bi-directional technology suitable for applications such as remote meter reading. For example, the Tokyo Electric Power Co was running experiments in the 1970’s which reported successful bi-directional operation with several hundred units M Hosono et al, Improved Automatic meter reading and load control system and its operational achievement, ,4th international conference on metering, apparatus and tariffs for electricity supply pp 90-94, 26-28 October 1982, IEE. Since the mid-eighties there has been a surge of interest in using the potential of digital communications techniques and digital signal processing. The drive is to produce a reliable system which is cheap enough to be widely installed and able to compete cost effectively with wireless solutions. The narrowband powerline communications channel presents many technical challenges. A mathematical channel model and a survey of work can be found in reference no. 5D Cooper, T Jeans, Narrowband, Low Data Rate Communications on the Low-Voltage Mains in the CENELEC Frequencies- Part I: Noise and Attenuation, IEEE Trans on Power Delivery, vol 17 no 3 July 2002 pp 718-723.
Applications of mains communications vary enormously, as would be expected of such a widely available medium. One natural application of narrow band power line communication is the control and telemetry of electrical equipment such as meters, switches, heaters and domestic appliances. There are a number of active developments that are considering such applications from a systems point of view, such as \'Demand Side Management\' J Newbury, Communication requirements and standards for low voltage mains signalling, IEEE trans. on Power Delivery, Vol 13 no 1, Jan 1998, pp 46-49. In this, domestic appliances would intelligently co-ordinate their use of resources, for example limiting peak loads.
Control and telemetry applications include both \'utility side\' applications, which involves equipment belonging to the utility (i.e. between the supply transformer substation up to the domestic meter), and \'consumer-side\' applications which involves equipment in the consumer\'s premises. Possible utility-side applications include automatic meter reading, dynamic tariff control, load management, load profile recording, credit control, pre-payment, remote connection, fraud detection and network management T J Sheppard \'Mains Communications- a practical metering system\' 7th International Conference on Metering Applications and Tariffs for Electricity Supply pp 223-227 17-19 Nov 1992 (London UK: IEE 1992), and could be extended to include gas and water.
A project of EDF, France, includes demand side management, street lighting control, remote metering and billing, customer specific tariff optimisation, contract management, expense estimation and gas applications safety G Duval, Applications of power line carrier at Electricite de France Proc 1997 Internat. Symp. on Power Line Comms and its Applications pp76-80.
There are also many specialised niche applications which use the mains supply within the home as a convenient data link for telemetry. For example, in the UK and Europe a TV audience monitoring system uses powerline communications as a convenient data path between devices that monitor TV viewing activity in different rooms in a home and a data concentrator which is connected to a telephone modem.
The most robust low speed powerline technology uses DCSK technology available from Yitran Communications. Renesas Technology licenses this know-how from Yitran and incorporates it in the single chip MCU + PLC family of devices known as M16C/6S. Renesas also licenses a state of the art network layer for AMR/AMM applications which can run on these devices.
DLC utilizes the existing electrical distribution network in the Medium voltage (MV)- i.e., 11 kV, Low Voltage (LV) as well building voltages. It is very similar to the powerline carrier. DLC uses narrowband powerline communicationfrequency range from 9-500 kHz with data rate up to 576 kbit/s. DLC is suitable (even in very large networks) for multiple Realtime Energy Managements applications. It can be implemented under REMPLI System as well as SCADA, AMR and Power Quality Monitoring System. DLC System is compliant with the following standards: EN 50065 (CENELEC), IEC 61000-3 and FCC Part 15 Subpart B.
Importantly, there are no interference issues with radio users or electromagnetic radiation. With external inductive or capacitive coupling, a distance more than 15 km can be achieved over a medium voltage network. On low voltage networks, a direct connection can be made since the DLC system has a built-in capacitive coupler. This allows end-end communications from substation to the customer premises without repeaters.
The latest DLC systems have significant improvement and distinguisable differences as compared with other Powerline communication segments. DLC is mainly useful for last-mile and backhaul instrastucture that can be integrated with corporate Wide Area Networks (WANs) via TCP/IP, serial communication or leased-line modem to cater for multi-services Realtime Energy Management Systems.
Sometimes PLC was and is used for transmitting radio programs over powerlines. When operated in the AM radio band, it is known as a carrier current system. Such devices were in use in Germany, where it was called "Drahtfunk" and in Switzerland, where it was called "Telefonrundspruch" and used telephone lines. In the USSR PLC was very common for broadcasting, because PLC listeners cannot receive foreign transmissions. In Norway the radiation of PLC systems from powerlines was sometimes used for radio supply. These facilities were called Linjesender. In all cases the radio programme was fed by special transformers into the lines. In order to prevent uncontrolled propagation, filters for the carrier frequencies of the PLC systems were installed in substations and at line branches.
An example of the programs carried by "wire broadcasting" in Switzerland:
Utility companies use special coupling capacitors to connect medium-frequency radio transmitters to the power-frequency AC conductors. Frequencies used are in the range of 24 to 500 kHz, with transmitter power levels up to hundreds of watts. These signals may be impressed on one conductor, on two conductors or on all three conductors of a high-voltage AC transmission line. Several different PLC channels may be coupled onto one HV line. Filtering devices are applied at substations to prevent the carrier frequency current from being bypassed through the station apparatus and to ensure that distant faults do not affect the isolated segments of the PLC system. These circuits are used for control of switchgear, and for protection of transmission lines. For example, a protection relay can use a PLC channel to trip a line if a fault is detected between its two terminals, but to leave the line in operation if the fault is elsewhere on the system.
While utility companies use microwave and now, increasingly, fiber optic cables for their primary system communication needs, the power-line carrier apparatus may still be useful as a backup channel or for very simple low-cost installations that do not warrant a fibre drop.
Such systems have long been a favorite at many utilities because it allows them to move large amounts of data over an infrastructure that they control. Many technologies are capable of performing multiple applications. For example, a communication system bought initially for automatic meter reading can sometimes also be used for load control or for demand response applications.
PLC is one of the technologies used in the Automatic Meter Reading industry. Both one-way and two-way systems have been successfully used for decades. Interest in this application has grown substantially in recent history -- not so much because there is an interest in automating a manual process, but because there is an interest in obtaining fresh data from all metered points in order to better control and operate the system.
Outbound messages injected at a utility substation will propagate to all points downstream. This type of broadcast allows the communication system to simultaneously reach many thousands of devices -- all of which are known to have power, and have been previously identified as candidates for load shed.
Technology is available from designs based on a number of different non-compatible silicon vendors.
These include Intellon\'s INT6000 silicon which meets the HomePlug AV specification (not interoperable with HomePlug 1.0 or Intellon\'s proprietary 85 Mbit/s Turbo mode) or DS2 DSS9XXX series silicon which complies with Universal Powerline Association standards; and other solutions from Panasonic and SiConnect. Some solutions are based on OFDM modulation with 1536 carriers and TDD or FDD channel access method. DS2 silicon may operate between 1 and 34 MHz. It provides a high dynamic range (90 dB) and offers frequency division and time division repeating capabilities. These characteristics allow the implementation of quality of service (QoS) and class of service (CoS) capabilities. Technologies deliver speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s at the physical layer and 130 Mbit/s at the application layer although actual throughput rates are degraded by the attenuation and the level of noise.
The technology to communicate over a transmission line has been largely standardized by IEEE Std 643. Systems built to this standard are available from commercial vendors.
Entire systems are available from commercial vendors.
Several competing standards are evolving including the HomePlug Powerline Alliance, Universal Powerline Association, ETSI, and the IEEE. It is unclear which standard will come out ahead. X10 is a de facto standard also used by RadioShack\'s Plug\'n\'Power system.
Consumer Electronics Powerline Communications Alliance (CEPCA) (Sony, Mitsubishi and Panasonic) is developing a standard to realize coexistence between various Powerline technologies, available today. [1]
The following is from the ETSI PLT homepage.
The project will progress the necessary standards and specifications to cover the provision of voice and data services over the mains power transmission and distribution network and/or in-building electricity wiring.
The standards will be developed in sufficient detail to allow interoperability between equipment from different manufacturers and co-existence of multiple powerline systems within the same environment. Harmonized Standards will be developed to allow presumption of conformity with the relevant EU/EC Directives.
The HomePlug Powerline Alliance is a trade group consisting of over 65 member companies. It was founded in March 2000 by leading technology companies to provide a forum for the creation of specifications for home power line networking products and services. The Alliance\'s mission is to enable and promote rapid availability, adoption and implementation of cost-effective, interoperable and standards-based home power line networks and products. The Sponsors and members of the Board of Directors of the Alliance include: Comcast, Earthlink, GE, Intel, Linksys, Motorola, Radio Shack, Samsung, Sharp, and Sony. The HomePlug Powerline Alliance has defined a number of standards:
LonWorks powerline communication is used world-wide, for example for Home Automation, Street Lighting, Energy Management and Utility Metering. Related standards can be found on [2]
OPERA (Open PLC European Research Alliance) is a R&D Project with funding from the European Commission. It aims to improve the existing systems, develop PLC service, and standardise systems.
POWERNET is a R&D Project with funding from the European Commission. It aims to develop and validate a ‘plug and play’ Cognitive Broadband over Power Lines (CBPL) communications equipment that meet the regulatory requirements concerning electro-magnetic radiations and can deliver high data rates while using with low transmit power spectral density and working at low signal to noise ratio.
The Universal Powerline Association (UPA) aligns industry leaders in the global Powerline Communications (PLC) market and covers all markets and both access and an in-home PLC technology to ensure a level playing field for the deployment of interoperable and coexisting PLC products to the benefit of consumers worldwide. UPA promotes products based on the UPA Digital Home Standard for home networking applications and on the Opera standard for BPL Power line access applications.
Some groups oppose the proliferation of this technology, mostly due to its potential to interfere with radio transmissions. As power lines are typically untwisted and unshielded, they are essentially large antennas, and will broadcast large amounts of radio energy (see the American Radio Relay League\'s article). Because of their lack of shielding, the BPL systems are also at risk of being interfered with by outside radio signals.
Recently, power and telecommunications companies have started tests of the BPL technology, over the protests of the radio groups. After claims of interference by these groups, many of the trials were ended early and proclaimed successes, though the ARRL and other groups claimed otherwise. Some of the providers conducting those trials have now begun commercial roll-outs in limited neighborhoods in selected cities, with some level of user acceptance. There have been many documented cases of interference reported to the FCC by Amateur Radio users. Because of these continued problems, Amateur Radio operators and others filed a petition for reconsideration with the FCC in February 2005. Austria, Australia, New Zealand and other locations have also experienced BPL\'s spectrum pollution and raised concerns within their governing bodies. In the UK, the BBC has published the results of a number of tests (The effects of PLT on broadcast reception,PLT and Broadcasting,Co-existence of PLT and Radio Services) to detect interference from BPL installations. They have also made a video (Real Media format), showing broadcast of data and interference from in-home BPL devices.
In June 2007, NATO Research and Technology Organisation released a report titled HF Interference, Procedures and Tools (RTO-TR-IST-050) which concluded that widespread deployment of BPL may have a "possible detrimental effect upon military HF radio communications and COMINT systems."
New Powerline modes are able to detect the existence of SW-Radio services at the location and time of operation by monitoring the ground noise at the socket where the modem is connected to. The frequencies allocated by radio broadcast will be omitted from Powerline communication. Such new technologies remove interferences from powerline modems to SW-Radio broadcast.
On October 14, 2004, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission adopted rules to facilitate the deployment of "Access BPL" -- i.e., use of BPL to deliver broadband service to homes and businesses. The technical rules are more liberal than those advanced by ARRL and other spectrum users, but include provisions that require BPL providers to investigate and correct any interference they cause. These rules may be subject to future litigation.
On August 8 2006 FCC Adopts Memorandum Opinion and Order on Broadband Over Power Lines giving the go-ahead to Promote Broadband Service to All Americans.FCCMemorandum Opinion and Order on Broadband Over BPL The order rejects calls from aviation, business, commercial, amateur radio and other sectors of spectrum users to limit or prohibit deployment until further study is completed. FCC chief Kevin Martin said that "holds great promise as a ubiquitous broadband solution that would offer a viable alternative to cable, digital subscriber line, fiber, and wireless broadband solutions," and that BPL was one of the agency\'s "top priorities."FCC chief Kevin Martin statement
New FCC rules require BPL systems to be capable of remotely notching out frequencies on which interference occurs, and of shutting down remotely if necessary to resolve the interference. BPL systems operating within FCC Part 15 emissions limits may still interfere with wireless radio communications and are required to resolve interference problems. A few early trials have been shut down, though whether it was in response to complaints is debatable.
The following deployments are thought to be active as of December 2007:
The following deployments have ended:
The following BPL Deployments in the United States have been dismantled as of December 2007 BPL Database and Interference Information: U.S.:
| Location | Electric Provider | Equipment |
|---|---|---|
| AL, Hoover (and other cities) | Southern Company | Various |
| AZ, Cottonwood | Arizona Power Systems (APS) | Mitsubishi |
| CA, Menlo Park | Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) | Main.net |
| CA, Rosemead | Southern California Edison (SCE) | Current Technologies |
| CA, San Diego | San Diego Gas and Electric (SDG&E) | Various |
| CT, Shelton | United Illuminating | Amperion |
| FL, Graceville | West Florida Electric Cooperative | Ascom |
| FL, Miami | Florida Power and Light | Amperion and Main.net |
| GA, Clarksville | Habersham EMC | Mitsubishi |
| GA, Douglasville | Greystone Power | Mitsubishi |
| GA, Young, Harris | The Sphigler Group | Main.net |
| HI, Honolulu | Honolulu Electric Company | Current Technologies |
| IA, Cedar Rapids | Alliant Energy | Amperion |
| ID, Boise | IDACorp | Various |
| IN, Liberty | Whitewater RMEMC | Corinex |
| MD, Hughesville | Southern Maryland Electric Company | Current Technologies |
| MD, Potomac | PEPCO | Current Technologies |
| MN, Rochester | Rochester Public Utilities | Main.net |
| MO, Lees, Summit | Aquila | Amperion |
| NC, Raleigh | Progress Energy | Amperion |
| NY, Spring Valley | Orange and Rockland Utilities | Ambient |
| NY, Penn Yan | Penn Yan Power and Light | Amperion |
| PA, Allentown | Pennsylvania Power and Light | Main.net and Amperion |
| TN, Fayetteville | Fayetteville Public Utilities | Grid Stream |
| TX, Austin | Austin Electric Energy | Corinex |
| TX, Flatonia | Broadband Horizons | Unknown |
| TX, Weimar | Fayette Electric Cooperative | PowerWan |
| VA, Roanoke | American Electric Power | Mitsubishi |
| WA, Wenatchee | Heights, Chelan County PUD | Gridstream |
Power-line technology enables in-vehicle network communication of Data, Voice, Music and Video signals by digital means over Direct Current (DC) battery power-line. Advanced digital communication techniques tailored to overcome hostile and noisy environment are implemented in a small size silicon device. One power line can be used for multiple independent networks.
Prototypes are successfully operational in vehicles, using automotive compatible protocols such as CAN-bus, LIN-bus over power line ([DC-LIN]http://www.yamar.com/DC-LIN.html) and [DC-bus]http://www.yamar.com/DCB500.html].
Automotive Applications include Mechatronics (e.g. Climate control, Door module, Immobilizer, Obstacle detector), Telematics and Multimedia.
| Internet access methods | |
|---|---|
| Wired | Dial-up · ISDN · DSL · Cable · Fiber optic · Power-line |
| Wireless | Wi-Fi · Bluetooth · DECT · WiBro · WiMAX · UMTS-TDD · HSPA · EV-DO · Satellite |
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